Terminology & Acronyms

Lifecycle

Acquisition (Data acquisition) Collecting measured data using a single, or multiple sensors. This is the point at which data originates. The data is also sometimes referred to as raw data. For example, collecting multibeam echosounder depth measurements typically used to map the seabed.

Acquisition planning (Data acquisition planning) Working backward from the end objective, to determining where, what, when, and how data is to be acquired. While data is yet to be acquired, this step plays a significant role in ensuring the 'right' data is acquired.

Analysis (Data analysis) Involves deriving new data, post-processing of acquired data, using mathematical equations. This is the point at which characteristics or features of the data are extracted. For example, calculating the change in slope or gradient of the seabed over a given area.

Data lifecycle End-to-end process that data travels through from the acquisition to action. It can be broken down into major stages of: acquisition, processing, analysis, visualisation, and interpretation. Planning for acquisition may also be included in the data lifecycle, as is data management.

Interpretation (Data interpretation) Involves extracting information from analysed or visualised data to characterise or categorise features. Traditionally this is done by humans, but is increasingly being done by computing. For example, characterisation of sediment type or automated identification of a boulder. 

Management (Data management) Manual and automated activities principally related to the control of datasets (or files) over their lifecycle at an organisational level. This can be specific to each stage in the data lifecycle, to the type of data, and to purpose for which it is being used. For example, data management at acquisition is centred on the acquired or raw geospatial datasets; whereas at the interpretation stage, it is centred on the visualisations, reports, and other.

Pre- and Post-Processed Data Pre-processed data typically refers to as-acquired or raw data, i.e. in the form it was collected by the sensor. Post-processed data typically refers to data that has been corrected, augmented, and refined in some way to ensure accuracy and put it in a form ready for the next stage of its lifecycle. Note: As there can be multiple stages of processing across the data lifecycle, pre- and post-processed, essentially mean before and after.

Processing (Data processing) Involves transforming acquired or raw data for analysis, visualisation, and interpretation. This is the point at which corrections may be applied; anomalies removed; and data points consolidated into representative data points. For example, processing data to achieve a consistent resolution across the entire survey area.

Orchestration (Data orchestration) Automated activities principally related to the movement of data from one location to another at a process level, for example, from cloud storage to a visualisation tool. Multiple activities may be performed within a specific stage of the data lifecycle, as well all activities being orchestrated across the data lifecycle. 

Visualisation (Data visualisation) Transformation of post-processed data into a continuous representation of the measured feature, such that is easily interpreted by humans. This is the point at which different datasets may be brought together to build-up a layered or multi-dimensional model. For example, a ground model is a visual representation of continuous layers of multiple different datasets that describe the seabed and what's below it.

 

Technologies

Artificial Intelligence (AI) The capability of technology (or a machine) to perform goal-directed adaptive behaviour [1]. Different types of AI are used to achieve this in different ways, including Robotic Process Automation (RPA); Machine Learning (ML); Agentic computing; Generative AI; and others continue to emerge. What can be achieved today ranges from task automation, through content generation and complex decision making, to avatars.

Big Data Term that encapsulates technologies developed to work with exceptional datasets across the data lifecycle. These datasets are exceptional as a result of their: volume, variety, velocity, veracity, and value. Big data technologies include everything from cloud data storage, through distributed computing frameworks and parallel data processing capabilities, to data visualisation. Example technologies include Amazon Web Services (AWS), Apache Parquet, Apache Spark, and ArcGIS.

Big Data Analytics Techniques and tools used to analyse large volumes of complex data to uncover patterns, trends, and actionable insights.

Cloud Compute The provision of compute (or machine) resource capacity remote from the point of consumption (i.e. local device such as a laptop), enabled by the internet. The hardware and software required to deliver this service is located centrally in a datacentre, then distributed to consumers on-demand.

Cloud Management Administration and orchestration of cloud-based services and infrastructure for data handling and access control.

Cloud Services The delivery of computing services over the internet from a centralised location, to globally distributed consumers. In reality, the cloud is a datacentre (or network of datacentres) that holds the hardware and software resources to perform computing, that can be accessed remotely by consumers almost anywhere in the world. Cloud technologies are delivered ‘as-a-service’. For example, data-as-a-service, infrastructure-as-a-service, platform-as-a-service, and software-as-a-service.

Cloud Storage The provision of data storage capacity remote from the point of consumption (i.e. local device such as a laptop), enabled by the internet. The hardware and software required to deliver this service is located centrally in a datacentre, then distributed to consumers on-demand.

GeoAI The application of artificial intelligence (AI)  capabilities to geospatial data. Today, it is almost entirely the application of machine learning (ML) capabilities to geospatial data to plan the optimum route, identify key features, or accelerate the processing of data.

Geospatial Information System (GIS) Term that encapsulates all software technologies developed principally for application in the geospatial data lifecycle. Today, the term is most commonly associated with technologies for visualising geospatial data, such as ArcGIS, QGIS, and CARTO. However, in its broadest form, it also encapsulates technologies such as Google Earth, Ordinance Survey, CARIS, Kingdom, and SonarWiz.

Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT) or Location Intelligence A category of software technologies within the geospatial information system (GIS) that enable deep insights about a particular location. This can include visualisation, pattern analysis, and behaviour prediction.

Machine Learning (ML) A subset of Artificial Intelligence (AI) that is typically applied to the processing, analysis, and interpretation of big data. To do this, a ML model is trained (i.e. algorithms and statistical models are developed), which enable the ML application to perform specific tasks autonomously. In the field of geospatial data, one of the main applications is in feature identification and classification. For example, identifying a boulder on the seabed.

 

Other

Automated Data Assurance Use of machine learning or scripted processes to assess the quality of data without manual inspection or judgement.

Batch Processing Automated processing of multiple datasets simultaneously, improving efficiency in data cleaning and output generation.

Centralised Data Repository A unified, structured storage system that consolidates all data in one place.

Data Architecture The structural design of data systems and workflows, ensuring efficient collection, integration, and retrieval of data.

Data Governance The policies and processes for managing the integrity, security, and accessibility of data assets.

Data Infrastructure The physical and digital systems - including hardware, software, and networks - that support data collection, storage, and processing.

Data Interoperability The ability of different systems and software to access, exchange, and use data seamlessly.

Data Lake A central repository that stores raw data in its native format for scalable analysis and integration.

Data Migration from Legacy Survey Systems The process of transferring historical data into modern platforms to enhance accessibility and use.

Data Storage Technologies and practices for storing digital marine data securely and efficiently.

Persistent Identifiers Unique, permanent identifiers assigned to datasets to aid tracking and reuse.

Python An open--source coding language used predominantly for data handling and machine learning.

Quality Control (QC) Checks performed to ensure the accuracy and integrity of data.

Scalable Quality Assurance (QA) Workflows Processes that can be expanded across large volumes of data or multiple projects to quality assure data.

Measures & Sensors Used in Data Acquisition

Conductivity, Temperature, Depth (CTD) An integrated set of three sensors each measuring a specific parameter, but all of which are related to each other. Conductivity (electrical) is actually used to determine the salinity of saltwater, i.e. the more saline, the more conductive. Temperature is as defined. Depth is derived from the measured pressure. In general terms, as depth increases - conductivity (or salinity) increases and temperature decreases. A CTD is usually lowered through the water column, i.e. from surface to seabed, to generate a profile of these parameters at a specific location. 

Dissolved Oxygen A measure of how much oxygen is dissolved in water or seawater. Given the criticality of oxygen to life, it's essential. There are two ways it is measured: (1) electrochemical, or (2) optical. Electrochemical can be further broken down into galvanic and polargraphic.

Electromagnetic (EM) Induction An an active device, i.e. it emits a signal and measures the return signal (unlike gradiometer or magnetometer, which are passive). It induces electromagnetic waves into the subsurface and measures the changes in electrical conductivity. It is towed like a magnetometer and gradiometer; but as it measures electrical conductivity. It can be used to detect ferrous and non-ferrous metals, albeit, the sensing distance for non-ferrous metals is much shorter than for ferrous metals. Typically, it is used to identify rock formations, shipwrecks, and unexploded ordinance (UXO).

Gradiometer A gradiometer (like a magnetometer), is towed behind a vessel and used to measure the rate of change of the earth's magnetic field. It measures the rate of change in the magnetic field; while a magnetometer measures magnitude and direction of magnetic field. Typically, it is used in geological surveys to map magnetic anomalies related to rock formations, buried structures, or ship wrecks.

Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) An an airborne version of a multi-beam echosounder (MBES), except that it use light rather than sound. Pulses of laser light are directed toward a surface, and the backscatter or intensity of light energy reflected back is measured. This is then translated into measure of height, which is used to generate topographical images.

Magnetometer A passive device that is towed behind a vessel, and is used to detect variations in the earth's magnetic field caused by distorting objects. It measures magnitude and direction of magnetic field; while a gradiometer measures the rate of change in the magnetic field. Typically, it is used to verify the presence of ferrous objects (iron, nickel, cobalt, and their allows) such a pipelines, shipwrecks, and unexploded ordinance (UXO) identified during, for example, a multibeam echosounder (MBES) or sub-bottom profiler (SBP) survey.

pH A scale from 0 to 14 indicating how acidic or alkaline water or seawater is. A pH of 0 indicates that it is strongly acidic, pH of 7 is neutral, while a pH of 14 is strongly alkaline. The oceans, in general, are slightly alkaline with a pH between 7.9 to 8.4 but as more carbon dioxide is absored, the pH is falling toward the acidic end of the scale.

Salinometer Determines the degree of salinity of water or seawater measuring electrical conductivity (like a conductivity sensor). As conductivity increases, so does salinity (or the amount of dissolved salt).

Seismic Airgun Array A seismic airgun array releases a pulse of extremely high energy sound waves at low frequency that penetrate the seabed to depths several kilometers into the subsurface. As the name suggests, this is achieved by firing compressed air into the water creating a bubble that expands and contracts. They are the deep version of sub-bottom profiler (SBP). Like a SBP, it generates acoustic images by converting measured acoustic backscatter intensity in grayscale colour; is towed behind a vessel; but is made up of 10s of individual airguns with 100s to 1000 receivers. It is typically used to determine deeper sub-seabed structure, composition, and features. For example, oil and gas deposits stored deep below the seabed.

Side Scan Sonar (SSS) A sensor like an MBES, except that collects data about what is above the seabed, rather than of the seabed itself. Similar to an MBES, it emits 100s of sound waves simultaneously in a single ping, angled sideways rather than directly down. It is made up of transmitters and receivers; is towed behind a vessel; and generates acoustic images by converting measured acoustic backscatter intensity into colour. It's most prevelant use is enabling above seabed features to be visualised, e.g. ships wrecks. 

Single Beam Echosounder (SBES) A sensor that emits a single sound wave or ping to measure the depth directly below the vessel. The sensor system is made up of two parts: a transmitter and a receiver. Its use is decreasing as sensor technology improves. However, it is still typically used in combination with a multibeam echosounder (MBES) as a way to verify measurement.

Sub-Bottom Profiler (SBP) A sensor used to determine what is below the surface of the seabed. It emits 100s of sound waves simultaneously in a single ping with a lower frequency, so that they penetrate the seabed surface. Similar to a side scan sonar (SSS), it generates acoustic images by converting measured acoustic backscatter intensity into grayscale colour; is towed behind a vessel; and is made up of transmitters and receivers. It is used to identify geological layers, e.g. sand on top of rock; and features within the geological layers, e.g. a gas pocket.

Turbidity In water or seawater, is a measure of the transparency or opaqueness of the water. It is based on measuring the amount of light reflected back to the sensor (that is delivered by the sensor) by particles in the water or seawater. The more light that is reflected, the more turbid, opaque, or murky the water is because there are more particles present. The less light reflected, the more transparent or clear the water or seawater is.

 

Field & Types of Data

Backscatter A measure of the differential energy of the acoustic sound waves returning (or scattered back) to the receiver. When the sound wave is emitted, it is emitted with a constant amount of energy. However, as it travels through seawater, hits surfaces, etc., it loses energy. The differential between the energy when emitted, and when returned, provides significant insight into what the sound wave may have hit before returning, as each surface absorbs sound energy at a different rate. For example, less energy will be lost if it hits a hard, rock-like surface; and more energy will be lost if it hits a soft, clay-like surface.

Bathymetric Post-processed depth measurement data that is used to visualise the seabed surface, equivalent to the topography of a land surface. It is most typically generated from single beam echosounder (SBES), multibeam echosounder (MBES), satellite imaging, and/or satellite gravity sensors.

Geodetic Used to describe the shape, size, and gravitional fields of the physical geography. It involves measuring distances, angles, and elevations; and is most commonly used in positioning and location.

Geological A broad field describes the structure, composition, and history of geographical physical features. Although derived from originating data such as sub-bottom profiler (SBP), geological data classifies or categorises. For example, sediment, rock, chalk, clay, etc.. It also uses known natural processes, e.g. volcanic eruptions, to identify structure and composition of an area.

Geophysical A broad field that describes the measurable attributes of geographical physical features. For example, height, depth, gravitational force, electronic-magnetic force, etc.; and physical features derived from these, e.g. slope or gradient of the seabed.

Geospatial Encapsulates all data used to describe physical geography. It can be thought of as the parent, under which geological, geophysical, oceanographic, etc. data sits. It should be noted that although geospatial data is broken down into broad fields, there is significant overlap between them as physical geography is implicitly interconnected.

Geotechnical. A broad field that describes structure and composition of physical geography in very small and specific location. Unlike geological or geophysical data, which infer from measured data, geotechincal data involves directly inspecting and/or analysing physical samples. This may be achieved by collecting sediment, or drilling boreholes; and provides a means to gain certainty in a specific location.

Marine An all encompassing term for any and all data associated with oceans and seas. It ranges from the measurement of seabed depth, to the velocity of currents, speed of wind, and abundance of life.

Metocean A shorthand term for meteorological (weather) and oceanographic (ocean) conditions. Meteorolical data includes wind speeds, rainfall, air temperature, etc. over the oceans or sea. Oceanographic data includes tides, currents, water temperature, etc. (see definition of "oceanographic data").

Oceanographic A broad field that describes the biology, chemistry, and physics of the oceans. Theoretically, it can encapsulate all geospatial data within the oceans. However, to enable clarity, it may be better thought of as all data that describes what is above the seabed, or the water column. This ranges from salinity to marine life to currents. 

Satellite Derived Bathymetry (SDB) Involves using either measurements of colour within images, differences in images, or gravitional force measurement to infer depths of the seabed. It leverages physical relationships between a measurable and feature to derive or calculate depth. For example, light from the sun penetrates shallow water far more than it does deeper water and as a result, there is contour of colours that can be translated into a depth measurement. The use of satellites enables vast areas to be mapped, however, there are limitations in terms of resolution, accuracy, and depth.

Seismic Used to describe what is below the surface, i.e. subsurface structures, composition, features, etc.. In the context of marine geospatial data, it the measurement of extremely high energy (very loud) sound waves converted into physical feature, e.g. layers of different sediment, clay, and rock on and below the seabed.

Sonar Used in a vast array of applications. In the context of marine data, it is typically used to measure depth and identify features. It is generated by emitting sound waves and measuring either the time taken for the sound waves to return, or the energy intensity of the returning wave, to translate into a description. Sonar is used extensively in water environments because sound can travel exceptionally far and fast (in comparison, to in air). 

 

Public Marine Geospatial Data Providers

European Marine Observation and Data Network (EMODnet) Established in 2009 to enable better access and utilisation of European marine data. It is funded through the European Commission (EC). It is a network of over 120 organisations, who work together to harmonise and standardise marine data to maximise its accessibility, usability, and ultimately, value.

General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) Fun fact, it was actually initiated in 1903 by Prince Albert I of Monaco. Today, it is more prominently known through the "Seabed 2030" initiative, a collaboration with the Nippon Foundation that has the ambition to generate a complete map of the seabed (across all oceans) by 2030. As of February 2025, 26.1% of the seabed had been mapped.

Integrated Mapping for the Sustainable Development of Ireland's Marine Resource (INFOMAR) Established in 2006, as a 20 year, to map Ireland's seabed. The initiative is generating comprehensive maps of the seabed's physical, chemical, and biological features, particularly in inshore waters.

Marine and Environmental Data Network (MEDIN) Established in 2008 to improve access to, and management of, the United Kingdom's (UK's) marine environmental data and information. It delivers data through co-ordinated network of accredited data archive centres; and also defines standards to enable easier discovery, better sharing, and re-use of data. MEDIN is part of the UK's National Oceanographic Centre (NOC).

Marine Data Exchange (MDE) A subsidiary of The Crown Estate (TCE), established in 2013 to curate and make publicly available data and evidence collected by The Crown Estate, and The Crown Estate Scotland, as part of its leasing of the United Kingdom (UK) seabed. It now covers all UK waters. Typically, it includes the data and evidence submitted by developers or other prospective and active users of the UK's seabed.

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) A US Government agency that global ocean observations, satellite data, real-time data from buoys, and detailed oceanographic information. It was established in 1970, and plays a critical role in the marine protection and climate change mitigation well beyond the US's borders.

Public Data Providers There is a plethora of public data providers across the world. Typically, these are either Government organisations of some form, or Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) sponsored by governments. With the recognition that marine data is essential to political, economical, social, and environmental factors - there is a growing momentum to make more data publicly available. Only a sample of the all the public data providers are included here, however, they are the cornerstones of the marine data.

United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (UKHO) A UK Government body that provides hydrographic and marine geospatial data for navigation and maritime safety. It was established in 1795 by King George III. Data is made publicly available via the ADMIRALTY Marine Data Portal.

 

Other

Cloud-Native Geospatial Systems Systems designed to manage, process, and scale geospatial data using cloud infrastructure.

Coordinate Reference System (CRS) A geodetic system used to define locations; common systems include WGS 84 and Ordnance Datum Newlyn (ODN).

Crown Estate Marine Surveys Marine surveys conducted in areas under the Crown Estate jurisdiction, often linked to offshore wind and seabed leasing.

Data Dredge Logs Records generated during dredging operations, including position, depth, and volume of material moved.

Digital Twin (Offshore Environment) A virtual model of an offshore asset or area, updated in real-time using live and historical survey data.

Dredge Monitoring Using hydrographic tools to ensure correct placement/removal of material during dredging operations.

Final Survey Report (FSR) The conclusive document that outlines methods, results, and quality control measures of a marine survey.

Geodetic Control Establishment of precise reference points to ensure spatial accuracy in survey operations.

Geophysical Interpretation Analysis of data collected from geophysical sensors to determine seafloor characteristics and subsurface features.

GIS-Ready Survey Data Survey datasets formatted for immediate use in Geographic Information Systems (GIS).

Ground Truthing Validation of remote sensing or sonar data through direct observations or physical sampling.

HSE (Health, Safety, Environment) Regulatory framework ensuring safe and environmentally responsible offshore survey practices.

Hydrographic Survey Survey that maps the physical features of bodies of water, including depth and seabed characteristics.

In-field Data Validation Tools Hardware or software used at the survey site to perform real-time data checks and quality assurance (QA).

Inshore vs Offshore Surveying Inshore surveys are close to shorelines in shallower water; offshore surveys cover deeper, open-water regions.

JNCC Guidelines for Marine Survey Best-practice guidance from the UK’s Joint Nature Conservation Committee on conducting environmentally responsible surveys.

Line Plan A pre-planned set of survey lines to ensure full spatial coverage and data consistency.

Marine Aggregate Extraction Surveys Surveys conducted to assess seabed resources for sand and gravel extraction.

Marine Data Cataloguing Organising marine datasets with metadata for efficient discovery and reuse.

Marine Data Engineering Engineering discipline focused on designing and optimising pipelines for marine data acquisition, transformation, and analysis.

Marine Management Organisation (MMO) UK authority overseeing sustainable marine activities including surveys and construction.

Mean Sea Level (MSL) Average height of the sea used as a reference for depth and elevation measurements.

Metadata Standards (e.g. ISO 19115) International standards for describing the contents and structure of geospatial datasets.

Multibeam Data Processing Techniques used to clean, validate, and format MBES data for analysis and charting.

Navigational Surface Gridded bathymetric product used for safe navigation, typically complying with UKHO standards.

Node Spacing Distance between data points in a grid; affects the resolution and accuracy of the final model.

Offshore Marine Surveyor A professional who conducts geophysical, geotechnical, or hydrographic surveys in offshore environments to support marine construction, resource extraction, or environmental studies.

Offshore Windfarm Pre-Construction Surveys Baseline surveys performed before building wind farms to identify hazards, geology, and habitats.

OGC Standards (Open Geospatial Consortium) Specifications that ensure interoperability of geospatial data and services.

Ordnance Datum Newlyn (ODN) UK vertical datum based on mean sea level at Newlyn, used for height/depth referencing.

Patch Test Calibration routine for MBES systems to correct angular and timing offsets.

Positioning System GNSS and inertial tools used to determine exact locations of survey sensors and platforms.

Remote Surveying Conducting marine surveys without direct human presence on site, often via AUVs or remote control vessels.

Seabed Classification Categorisation of seabed types based on acoustic returns, samples, and geophysical interpretation.

Sensor Fusion Combining data from multiple sensors (e.g. GNSS, IMU, sonar) to enhance data accuracy and reliability.

Sound Velocity Profile (SVP) A measurement of how sound speed varies with depth, used to correct sonar data.

Survey Deliverables Final products delivered after a survey, including charts, reports, and raw/processed datasets.

Survey Line Planning Designing navigation paths for survey vessels to ensure complete coverage and efficient data collection.

Tide Correction Adjustment made to bathymetric data to account for tidal fluctuations, usually referenced to LAT or MSL.

United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (UKHO) Government body that provides hydrographic and marine geospatial data for navigation and maritime safety.

UXO (Unexploded Ordnance) Unexploded bombs or mines that may be present on the seabed and pose hazards to marine operations.

Marine Industry

CRS                            Coordinate Reference System
DA                              Data Assurance
GNSS                         Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS                            Global Positioning System
HSE                            Health, Safety, and Environment
INS                             Inertial Navigation System
MBES                          Multibeam echosounder
MRU                           Motion Reference Unit
MSL                            Mean Sea Level
ODN                           Ordnance Datum Newlyn
QA                              Quality Assurance
QC                              Quality Control
SBES                          Single beam echosounder
SBP                            Sub-Bottom Profiler
SSS                            Side scan sonar
SVP                            Sound Velocity Profile
UXO                           Unexploded Ordinance

 

Organisations

EMODnet                    European Marine Observation and Data Network
GEBCO                       General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans
GEOMAR                    GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel
INFOMAR                   Integrated Mapping for the Sustainable Development of Ireland's Marine Resources
JNCC                          UK’s Joint Nature Conservation Committee
MCA                            Maritime & Coastguard Agency
MDE                            Marine Data Exchange
MEDIN                        Marine Environmental Data and Information Network
MMO                           Marine Management Organisation
NOAA                          National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Agency
TCE                              The Crown Estate
UKHO                         United Kingdom Hydrographic Office

 

Technology

AGI                              Artificial General Intelligence
AI                                 Artificial Intelligence
AIX                              Artificial Intelligence Experience
AWS                            Amazon Web Services
DL                               Deep Learning
GenAI                         Generative Artificial Intelligence
GeoAI                         Geospatial (applied) Artificial Intelligence
GIS                              Geospatial Information System
LLM                             Large Language Model
ML                               Machine Learning
MLOps                        Machine Learning Operations
NLP                             Natural Language Processing
RPA                             Robotic Process Automation